Cover image: The Beihai Park Stupa in Beijing, China, is an iconic landmark located in one of the oldest and most famous imperial gardens in the Chinese capital. Built in 1651 during the Qing Dynasty, this white stupa stands majestically on Qionghua Island in the middle of Beihai Lake. Its construction was ordered by Emperor Shunzhi to honor the visit of the Tibetan lama, the Fifth Dalai Lama, and to symbolize unity among the various Buddhist communities. Built in Tibetan style, the stupa is approximately 40 meters high and is decorated with Buddhist sculptures and inscriptions. It is surrounded by lush gardens and pavilions, making it a place of contemplation and serenity for visitors.

Are stupas, the mystical structures that dot the Buddhist landscape, more than just relics? 'A stupa is a mountain of the mind,' said a Buddhist sage. But what does this statement really mean? Let's delve into the history, symbolism, and evolution of these iconic monuments to uncover the secrets they hold.

What is a stupa?

The term stūpa (Sk.), also known as thūpa (Pal.), dagoba (Cingh.), mchod-rten (Tib.), shuaidupo (Ch.), dan (Jap.), and sotoba (Ta.), literally means "bun" or, according to Tibetan, "offering stand". It is a typical Buddhist reliquary monument, originally built by lay followers at the suggestion of the Buddha to house his relics.

Origin and Evolution of Stupas

The First Stupas

The first stupas, of which almost nothing remains, were built of beaten earth and had a hemispherical shape on a round base. They were inspired by the model of the tumuli of prehistory and the burial mounds of the Aryan tribes. These structures were surrounded by a square enclosure and surmounted by a pole with superimposed umbrellas. Over time, they were replaced by models with a sculpted dome on a square base, made of bricks and stones. In the center of the square base (in the central axis of the building) was a reliquary intended to receive relics of holy people or sacred texts.

Stupas and Buddhist High Places

The first stupas were built in the high places of the Buddha's life:

• Lumbini
  
  
• Sarnath
  
  
• Bodhgaya
  
  
• Kuśinagara
  
  

The Age of Aśoka

It was during the reign of Asoka (3rd century BC) that the construction of stupa became widespread. According to legend, Asoka had a great many stupa built (84,000) to atone for the misdeeds and suffering caused by his youthful conquests. Among the most famous:

• Sāñchī Stupa : Stupa No. 1, attributed to Aśoka, although modified over the centuries, gives an idea of ​​the primitive stupas. The porticos or torāna which surround it were added later (1st century BC).
  
  
• Bharhut Stupa (early 2nd century BC): Although destroyed, some elements such as the red sandstone balustrades decorated with bas-reliefs on the life of the Buddha have been preserved.
  
  
• Stupa of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa and that of Amarāvatī (1st-2nd century), famous for their narrative sculptures.
  
  

Stupas in Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, there are large hemispherical stupas of ancient origin such as:

• Thūpārāma
  
  
• Ruwandeli Dagoba attributed to King Duṭṭhagāmiṇī (reigned: 101-71 BC).

Symbolism of Stupas

From a symbolic point of view, several interpretations have been given to the shape of the first stupas:

• Dome : Would represent nirvana.
• Square base : Discipline (sk. śīla ).
• Superimposed parasols : Royal symbol, symbolizing the future births of the Buddha.
• Central axis : Figure Mount Meru.
• Elements : Earth (square base), water (dome), fire (arrow), air and ether (parasols).

Evolution of Stupas

Kuṣāṇa period (1st-3rd century)

The stupas of this period show an evolution with a square base surmounted by three cylinders, a bell-shaped dome decorated with lotuses and a spire marked with numerous stepped discs.

Tibetan Stupas

In Tibet and areas influenced by Tibetan Buddhism, the classical type of stūpa is called chörten (Tib. mchod-rten). Its symbolism becomes Mahāyānist and Tantric:

• Square base : Leonine throne (tib. seng-ge'i khri) with the four unlimited ones.
• Steps : Forming a truncated pyramid, symbolizing the five paths to Awakening.
• Dome or "vase" (Tib. bum-pa): Enlarged cylinder containing mantras and symbols of the spirit of the Buddhas.
• Summit : Marked by an umbrella, a cup, a crescent moon and a sun disk.
  
  

Symbolism and Forms of the Chorten

If the square base represents the domain of desire, the dome that of form and the arrow the domain of the formless, other symbolisms are readable:

• Base : Earth element and the Buddha Ratnasambhava.
• Vase : Water and Akṣobhya.
• Conical arrow : Fire and Amitābha.
• Summit Umbrella : Air and Amoghasiddhi.
• Sun and Moon : Feminine and masculine essences.
• Nāda : Space and the Buddha Vairocana.
• Central axis : Mount Meru, represented by a “tree of life” (tib. srog-shing).

There are different sizes and shapes of chörten, eight shapes are identified:

• Chorten of the Sugata or the lotus cluster (birth): (tib. bde-gshegs mchod-rten). (1)
  The birth of Buddha in the Lumbini Garden in Kapilavastu, northern India, in the 6th century BCE
  
  
• Chorten of the descent from the heavens of Tuṣita: (Tib. lha-bab mchod-rten). (2)
  Maya Devi, the mother of Buddha, was reborn in a divine realm called the Tushita Heaven, where he taught her his dharma. This stupa represents Buddha's return from the heavenly realms to continue teaching the path to enlightenment.
  
  
• Chörten of Awakening: (tib. byang-chub mchod-rten). (3)
  After 49 days of meditation under a Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, Buddha understood the true nature of all phenomena and realized that all sentient beings, without exception, possess the same potential for enlightenment, the 'Buddha nature'.
  
  
• Chorten of turning the wheel of Dharma: (Tib. chos-'khor mchod-rten). (4)
  After attaining enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, Buddha traveled to Sarnath. It was here, in the deer park, that he gave his first discourse, setting in motion the "Wheel of Dharma." This place is one of the most sacred sites, as it was here that Buddha's teachings began to spread. Today, above the entrance of almost every Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, one finds the Wheel of Dharma framed by two gazelles.
  
  
• Chorten of miracles : (Tib. cho-'phrul-gyi mchod-rten). (5)
  

  This stupa commemorates Buddha's demonstration of miracles at Shravasti, where he was challenged to prove his enlightenment and performed a different miracle every day for 15 days.

  It also marks the Buddha's resolution of a conflict within the sangha and his extension of life by three months after one of his disciples implored him not to leave this world.

• Chorten of reconciliation : (tib. dbyen-bsdum mchod-rten). (6)
  Buddha's resolution of a conflict within the sangha.
  
  
• Chorten of complete victory : (tib. rnam-rgyal mchod-rten). (7)
  Buddha extended his life by three months after one of his disciples begged him not to leave this world.
  
  
• Chorten of nirvāṇa : (Tib. myang-'das mchod-rten). (8)
  Buddha's passage into nirvana, a state of true peace beyond death. With his final words, Buddha exhorted his disciples to be diligent in their efforts to attain enlightenment. Lying on his right side and in a state of deep meditation, Buddha left this world and passed into nirvana.

Great Tibetan Chorten

The largest chörten in Tibet is the Paldjor pagoda chörten (Tib. dPal-'byor) in Shigatsé:

• Height : 33 meters.
• Shape : Octagonal with six floors under the circular bum-pa and 108 doors.
• Content : 100,000 representations of the Buddha.

Other examples include the five chorten erected around Samye by Trisong-detsen with a three-story square base and a hemispherical dome.

Stupas in Nepal

The famous great stupas of:

• Bodhnath
  
  
  
  and Swayambhūnath near Kathmandu.
  
  
• Five stupas of Patan .
  
  

The one at Bodhnath , called Jaroungkhasor, is particularly venerated by Tibetans. The one at Swayambhūnath is more specifically venerated by Newar Buddhists.

Stupas in Southeast Asia

The stupa took on a slender form ending in an arrow pointing towards the sky, notably in Burmese art, as illustrated by:

• Shwedagon in Rangoon .
  
  

Notable Developments

Among the most extraordinary developments of the stupa are:

• Stupa-maṇḍala of Borobudur in Java.
  
  

Influence on Pagodas and Temples

The pagodas or storied temples developed in Nepal and later in Far Eastern Buddhism are also inspired by the primitive model of the stupa.
Like this modern pagoda in Wudang shan, Hubei province China