
Shamanism in the world - Origins and ancestral practices
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"The shaman is not simply a sick man or a madman; he is a sick man who has cured himself."
— Terence McKenna
I) General Introduction to Shamanism
Shamanism is one of humanity’s oldest and most universal spiritual practices. Dating back thousands of years, it predates major organized religions and has been practiced in human societies around the world. Shamanism is based on the idea that everything in nature is alive and connected, and that certain individuals—shamans—have the ability to connect with spirits to heal, guide, and protect their communities.
Origins of Shamanism
The origins of shamanism are difficult to date precisely, but the first shamanic practices date back to the Upper Paleolithic, approximately 30,000 to 40,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence, such as cave paintings depicting animal and human figures in trance, as well as ritual objects, has been discovered at ancient sites in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. These remains suggest that early human societies had already developed forms of shamanic spirituality based on connection with the natural and spiritual worlds.

The term "shaman" itself comes from the language of the Evenki, an indigenous people of Siberia, where shamanism has played a central role for millennia. The word šaman means "one who knows" or "one who sees," and refers to a person with special abilities to communicate with spirits and influence the spiritual world for the good of the community.
Universal Characteristics of Shamanism
Despite cultural and geographical differences, shamanism has universal characteristics that are evident in almost all societies that have practiced it. These common elements testify to the depth and universality of this spiritual tradition.
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Connection with the Spiritual World :
- Shamans are intermediaries between the physical world and the spiritual world. They are able to travel between these worlds, often in a trance state, to interact with the spirits of ancestors, animals, plants, and natural forces. These interactions are intended to obtain knowledge, guidance, or healing for their community.
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Healing Practices :
- Healing is at the heart of shamanism. Shamans use songs, dances, medicinal plants, and rituals to cure illnesses, whether physical or spiritual. They believe that illness is often the result of an imbalance between the individual and the spirit world, or a spiritual intrusion that must be expelled.
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Use of Sacred Plants :
- In many shamanic cultures, sacred plants play a central role. These plants, often psychotropic, such as ayahuasca in the Amazon or peyote among the Huichol of Mexico, are used to induce visions and allow the shaman to communicate more easily with the spirits.
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Totemism and Animism :
- Shamanism is often linked to totemism, where certain animals or plants are considered guiding or protective spirits for individuals or clans. Animism, the belief that all things, whether living or not, possess a spirit or life force, is a key feature of shamanism. Shamans maintain a close relationship with these spirits to maintain balance and harmony in their environment.
Spread of Shamanism Throughout the World
Before the arrival of the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), shamanism was practiced in almost every region of the world. In Siberia, Central Asia, and the Americas, shamans played a central role in indigenous societies, connecting community members to spirits and forces of nature. In Africa, pre-Christian Europe, and Oceania, similar forms of shamanism existed, albeit under different names and practices.
Shamanism spread throughout the world as a universal response to the spiritual, healing, and guidance needs of human communities. It allowed ancient societies to understand and interact with their environment in a deeply respectful and interconnected way. Even after the cultural invasion of the Religions of the Book, which often persecuted or marginalized shamanic practices, shamanism survived in various forms, often integrated or syncretized with the new religions.
Today, shamanism is experiencing a revival, both among indigenous peoples seeking to preserve their traditions, and among those seeking spirituality and connection with nature who are turning to these ancient practices to find meaning and healing in the modern world.

II) Shamanism Around the World
In this chapter, we will explore shamanism in different regions of the world, highlighting specific practices and local shamanic beliefs. Each region has developed its own version of shamanism, influenced by its natural environment, cultural traditions, and interactions with other peoples.
A) Asia
1. Siberia and Central Asia: The Cradle of Shamanism
Siberia and Central Asia are often considered the cradle of shamanism. In these regions, shamanism is not only a spiritual practice, but an integral part of the social and cultural life of indigenous peoples.
Specific Practices:
- The role of shamans ( šamans ) : Shamans in Siberia, as among the Evenki, Yakut, and Tuvans, are central figures, responsible for communicating with the spirits of nature and ancestors. They use drums, songs, and dances to enter into trance and travel to the spirit world.
- Shamanic Journey and Trance : Siberian shamans are known for their spirit journeys, where they transform into animals or fly to other worlds to seek help from the spirits.
- Healing Rites : Shamanic healing in Siberia often involves the extraction of harmful spiritual objects from the patient's body, a ritual that may include the use of local medicinal plants.
Local Beliefs:
- Totemism and Animism : The belief that every living being and natural object possesses a spirit is pervasive. The spirits of animals, mountains, rivers, and trees are revered, and shamans seek to maintain balance between these forces.
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Ancestral Spirits : Ancestors play a crucial role in spiritual life. Shamans communicate with them for guidance and protection of the community.
2. Mongolian Shamanism: Spirit Guides of the Steppes
Shamanism in Mongolia is one of the oldest and best-preserved shamanic traditions in Central Asia. Rooted in the lives of nomadic peoples of the steppes, it has played a central role in Mongolian spirituality, even influencing religious practices after the introduction of Buddhism.
Specific Practices:
- The role of Böö (Mongolian shamans) : Böö , or shamans, are considered to be mediators between humans and nature spirits, ancestors, and invisible forces. Mongolian shamans perform complex rituals, often at night, to contact these spirits, appease them, or obtain their assistance.
- Rituals and ceremonies : Mongolian shamanic rituals include offerings of meat, milk, and alcohol, ritual chanting ( khöömii or throat singing), and the use of drums and ritual clothing decorated with feathers and skins. Shamanic ceremonies are often performed to heal the sick, protect livestock, or influence natural elements, such as rain.
- Shamanic Journey : As in other shamanic traditions, Mongolian shamans undertake spiritual journeys to converse with spirits. They enter trances using breathing techniques, chanting, and drumming, allowing them to traverse the spirit worlds to obtain answers or bring back lost souls.
Local Beliefs:
- Nature Spirits and Tengri : Mongolian shamanism is deeply animistic, believing that all natural entities, such as mountains, rivers, and animals, possess spirits that must be respected and appeased. The concept of Tengri , the eternal sky, is central to Mongolian spirituality. Tengri is revered as the supreme force that governs the universe, and shamans act as its mediators.
- Ancestor Worship : Ancestors are revered and seen as protectors of their descendants. Shamanic rites often include prayers and offerings to ancestors to ask for their blessing and protection.
Syncretism with Buddhism:
- Influence of Tibetan Buddhism : With the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia in the 13th century, Mongolian shamanism underwent a transformation, incorporating some Buddhist elements. Buddhist lamas sometimes adopted shamanistic roles, and shamanistic practices were integrated into Buddhist rituals. For example, Buddhist purification ceremonies and healing rituals include shamanistic elements.
- Coexistence and complementarity : Today, shamanism and Buddhism coexists in Mongolia. Mongolians may consult both a shaman and a lama for different aspects of their spiritual life, combining traditions to suit their needs.
Contemporary Mongolian Shamanism:
- Revival and preservation : With the collapse of the communist regime in Mongolia in the late 20th century, which had repressed religious and shamanic practices, there has been a revival of shamanism. Many Mongolians are returning to shamanic traditions to strengthen their cultural and spiritual identity, and younger generations are showing increasing interest in these ancestral practices.
- Role in Modern Society : Today, Mongolian shamans continue to play an important role, not only in healing and spiritual protection, but also in preserving the environment and cultural traditions in the face of contemporary challenges.

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Tibetan shamanism is deeply rooted in the spiritual culture of Tibet, where it was influenced by the indigenous Bön religion before being syncretized with Tantric Buddhism . This unique tradition combines ancient shamanic elements with Buddhist practices, creating a rich and complex spiritual system.
Specific Practices:
- Bon and Shamanism : Before the arrival of Buddhism, the Bon religion dominated Tibet. Bon is an ancient spiritual tradition that shares many elements with shamanism, such as healing rituals, exorcisms, and communication with spirits. Bon priests, called Bonpo , acted as shamans, using trance techniques to contact spirits and ancestors.
- Integration into Tibetan Buddhism : When Buddhism arrived in Tibet in the 7th century, it incorporated many elements of Bon. Shamanic practices were absorbed into Buddhist rituals, including divination, purification, and protection practices. Ngakpa , or tantric monks, adopted roles similar to those of shamans, using mantras, mandalas, and fire rituals to invoke protective spirits and ward off negative forces.
- Shamanic Rituals : Tibetan shamanic rituals often include invocations of protective spirits, ritual dances, and the use of sacred objects such as phurbas (ritual daggers) and drums. These rituals are performed to cure illness, protect communities, and influence the natural elements.
Local Beliefs:
- Spirits and Deities : Tibetan shamanism places great importance on the spirits of nature, mountains, rivers, and winds, which are considered local deities. Buddhist shamans and lamas interact with these spirits to maintain harmony and protection of the community.
- Role of Ancestors : Ancestors are revered in Tibetan tradition, and shamanic rituals often include prayers and offerings to honor the ancestral spirits and obtain their blessings.
Syncretism with Buddhism:
- Tummo and Phowa : The practices of tummo (inner heat) and phowa (transfer of consciousness at the moment of death) in Tibetan Buddhism have parallels with ancient shamanic techniques. These practices are used to achieve spiritual control over the body and mind, a central concept in shamanic traditions.
- State Oracle : The Nechung Oracle is a striking example of the fusion of shamanism and Buddhism in Tibet. The oracle, a Buddhist monk in a trance, communicates with spirits to advise the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan Buddhist community. This traditionally shamanic role has been integrated into the structure of Tibetan Buddhism.
- The Tibetan Book of the Dead: known as the Bardo Thödol , is a sacred text of Tibetan Buddhism that guides souls through the intermediate states ( bardos ) between death and rebirth. This text has origins that date back to the Bön tradition. The Bardo Thödol is an example of this syncretization. The text was developed in a Buddhist context, but it retains elements of the Bön view of death and the afterlife.
Contemporary Tibetan Shamanism:
- Role in Modern Society : Today, Tibetan shamanism continues to play an important role in the spiritual life of Tibetans, especially in rural areas. Shamanic rituals are still practiced for healing, protection, and spiritual guidance, often in parallel with Buddhist practices.
- Revival and Preservation : With the exile of the Dalai Lama and many Tibetans, there has been an effort to preserve and revitalize Tibetan shamanic traditions, both in Tibet and among the Tibetan diaspora.
Tibetan shamanism is a unique fusion of ancient shamanic traditions and Buddhist practices, creating a rich and profound spiritual tradition. This integration has allowed shamanism to endure in Tibet, even after the introduction of Buddhism , and to continue to play a vital role in the spiritual and cultural life of Tibetans.
4. Chinese Shamanism. Wuism: Ancestor of Taoism and popular cults
Chinese shamanism is one of the oldest forms of spirituality in China, predating the emergence of Taoism and Confucianism. It has profoundly influenced the development of Chinese religious traditions, particularly Taoism , and remains present in popular religious practices.
Specific Practices:
- Wu: Shamans of Ancient China : In ancient China, wu were shamans who played a central role in religious and social life. These shamans were often women, and their functions included communicating with the spirits of ancestors, gods, and forces of nature. They used songs, dances, rituals, and trance techniques to contact the spirit world.
- Shamanic Rituals : Shamanic rituals in China included animal sacrifices, offerings to spirits, and divination practices to predict the future or resolve problems. The wu were also responsible for purification, protection, and healing ceremonies, often using medicinal herbs and talismans.
- Divination and Magic : Divination practices, such as interpreting signs in bones or turtle shells (bone oracle), were common in Chinese shamanism. These methods were used to obtain advice from spirits or ancestors on important matters, ranging from war decisions to crop management.
Local Beliefs:
- Animism and Totemism : Chinese shamanism is based on the belief that all things, including mountains, rivers, trees, and animals, possess a spirit or life force. The wu maintained a close relationship with these spirits to maintain harmony and balance in the natural and human world.
- Ancestor Worship : Ancestor worship is a tradition deeply rooted in Chinese spirituality, and it is strongly linked to shamanic practices. Ancestors were revered as protective spirits, and wu played a crucial role in rituals to honor and appease these spirits.
Influence on Taoism:
- Transition to Taoism : Taoism , as a philosophical and religious system, emerged in China incorporating many elements of shamanism. The practices of spirit communication, divination, and magical rituals were absorbed into Taoism , where they became key aspects of Taoist rituals.
- Fangshi : Fangshi were practitioners of magic and alchemy in China, often considered successors to the wu . They practiced rituals of protection, healing, and divination, and played a central role in the development of Taoist esoteric practices, including internal alchemy and immortality rituals.
- Cult of the Immortals : The cult of the Immortals in Taoism is also linked to shamanic beliefs. The Immortals are semi-divine figures who, through spiritual practice, have transcended death and become protectors and guides. These beliefs reflect ancient shamanic practices of communion with spirits and nature.
Contemporary Chinese Shamanism:
- Persistence in Folk Religion : Although Chinese shamanism has been largely integrated into Taoism and Buddhism , it persists in folk religious practices. Rituals to appease nature spirits, ceremonies to honor ancestors, and divination practices are still common in both rural and urban areas of contemporary China.
- Revival and Growing Interest : There is a renewed interest in Chinese shamanism, particularly in the context of the rediscovery of ancient Chinese spiritual traditions. Scholars and practitioners are exploring the shamanic roots of Taoism and Chinese spiritual culture, seeking to revitalize these practices in the modern world.
B) Americas
Americas: Doctors of the Soul
The Americas, from North to South, have a rich shamanic tradition. Indigenous peoples have developed spiritual practices deeply rooted in nature, using sacred plants and complex rituals to connect with spirits.
Specific Practices:
- North America : Medicine men of the Lakota, Ojibwe, and other tribes play a role similar to that of Siberian shamans. They use purification rituals, sweat lodges, and chants to cure illnesses and contact the spirit world.
- Amazon : Shamans of the Amazon rainforest, such as those of the Shipibo and Ashaninka peoples, use ayahuasca, a hallucinogenic plant, to enter a trance and receive visions of nature spirits. These visions are used to heal, predict the future, and solve community problems.
- Pre-Columbian Civilizations : The Mayans, Aztecs, and other pre-Columbian civilizations had shaman-priests who combined state religion with shamanic practices, including ritual sacrifices and ceremonies to honor gods and spirits.
Local Beliefs:
- Animism : Indigenous peoples of the Americas believe that everything in nature is alive and inhabited by spirits, from animals to plants to natural elements like wind and water.
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Sacred Plants : Plants such as ayahuasca, peyote, and tobacco are considered sacred, used to open doors to the spirit world and facilitate healing.
C) Africa
Africa: Guardians of Ancient Traditions
Shamanism in Africa is rich and diverse, integrating animist beliefs with ancestral healing practices. In West and Central Africa, traditional healers continue to play a crucial role in society.
Specific Practices:
- Voodoo in West Africa : Voodoo, practiced in Benin, Togo, and parts of Ghana, combines shamanic elements with ancestor worship and local deities. Voodoo priests act as shamans, communicating with spirits to cure illnesses and protect the community.
- Nganga in Central Africa : Nganga or traditional healers in Central Africa use complex rituals, medicinal herbs, and sacred objects to cure illnesses, protect against witchcraft, and communicate with ancestral spirits.
Local Beliefs:
- Ancestor Worship : In Africa, ancestors play a fundamental role. They are venerated and consulted through shamanic rituals, as they continue to watch over their descendants.
- Nature Spirits : The spirits of rivers, forests, and mountains are revered, and shamans work to appease these spirits to ensure the prosperity and health of the community.

D) Europe
Pre-Christian Europe: The Mysteries of the Druids and Seiðr
Before the Christianization of Europe, shamanism was a common spiritual practice in many regions. From Celtic druids to seiðr practitioners in Scandinavia, these traditions have profoundly influenced European spirituality.
Specific Practices:
Celtic Druids: The Sages and Shamans of the Ancient Celts
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Celtic Druids: Druids were the priests, judges, and shamans of the Celts. They performed rituals in nature, communicated with the spirits of trees and stones, and used herbs for healing. Druids celebrated the cycles of nature through festivals such as Samhain and Beltane.
Druids were central figures in Celtic society. Their influence extended to all aspects of life, including religion, justice, medicine, and education. As keepers of sacred knowledge and traditions, druids played a role similar to that of shamans in other cultures, acting as mediators between the human and spirit worlds.
Role of Druids in Celtic Society
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Priests and Spirit Guides : Druids were primarily the priests of the Celts, responsible for religious rituals, sacrifices, and ceremonies that honored the Celtic gods and nature spirits. They were the keepers of oral traditions and sacred myths, passing religious knowledge from generation to generation without writing it down, as the Celtic tradition favored orality.
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Judges and Advisors : As judges, druids held considerable authority in legal and social matters. They settled disputes, passed judgment, and ensured that customary laws were enforced. Their role as mediators also extended to relations between tribes and clans, where they were often called upon to resolve conflicts.
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Shamans and Spiritual Intermediaries : Druids were also shamans, in that they communicated with the spirit world. They had extensive knowledge of medicinal plants and herbs, which they used to cure illnesses, both physical and spiritual. Druids believed that nature was animated by spirits and that every tree, stone, river, and mountain possessed a divine or spiritual essence.
Rituals and Practices
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Communion with Nature : Druids performed their rituals outdoors, in sacred natural places such as groves of trees (called nemeton ), springs, and hills. These places were considered points of contact with the spirit world, where nature spirits resided and could be honored or invoked.
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Communicating with Tree and Stone Spirits : In Celtic spirituality, certain trees and stones were revered as living beings with spiritual powers. The oak tree, in particular, was sacred to the Druids, symbolizing strength, wisdom, and longevity. Druids believed that tree spirits could offer guidance, healing, or protection. Stones, meanwhile, were sometimes used as portals to other worlds or sites of communication with ancestors.
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Using Herbs for Healing : Druids were expert herbalists, knowing the medicinal properties of many local plants. They used herbs to treat illnesses, make potions, and prepare talismans or amulets for protection. Mistletoe, a revered plant among the Celts, was harvested in special ceremonies and used for its healing and magical properties.
Celebrating the Cycles of Nature
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Samhain : Samhain, which marks the beginning of the Celtic winter (approximately October 31), is one of the most important festivals celebrated by the Druids. During Samhain, the boundaries between the worlds of the living and the dead were considered particularly thin, allowing spirits and ancestors to cross over and communicate with the living. Druids conducted rituals to honor the dead, predict the future, and protect the community from malevolent spirits.
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Beltane : Beltane, celebrated around May 1, marks the beginning of summer. It was a festival of fertility, renewal, and purification. Druids would light large bonfires, around which livestock would be herded to protect them from disease and evil spirits. Beltane fires were also considered purifying, and druids would invoke the blessings of the gods for a prosperous growing season.
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Other Festivals : In addition to Samhain and Beltane, the Druids celebrated other seasonal festivals such as Imbolc (February, marking the end of winter) and Lughnasadh (August, a harvest festival). These festivals punctuated the Celtic year and were opportunities for the Druids to exercise their ritual and spiritual functions.
The Druids and Roman Influence
As the Roman Empire expanded, the Druids faced increasing repression, as the Romans saw their influence as a threat to their control over the Celtic populations. The Roman Emperor Augustus banned the practice of Druidism in the Roman provinces, and under the Emperor Claudius, this ban was extended throughout the Empire. Despite this, some Druid practices survived underground or became integrated into the emerging Celtic Christianity.
Druids were the wise men, healers, and shamans of Celtic society. Their deep respect for nature and connection to the spiritual world gave them a unique and essential role in Celtic life. Although the specific details of their practices are largely lost due to the oral nature of their tradition and Roman repression, the legacy of the Druids lives on in folklore, Celtic culture, and modern spiritual movements that seek to reconnect with these ancient traditions.

Scandinavian Seiðr: The Shamanic Magic of the Völva
- Scandinavian Seiðr : In Scandinavia, seiðr is a form of shamanic magic that holds a special place in the spiritual tradition of the ancient Norse. This type of magic, practiced primarily by women known as völva , or prophetesses, combined elements of divination, healing, and manipulation of natural forces. Seiðr is one of the most mysterious and powerful magical practices of the Norse peoples, and it reflects a deep connection with the spirit world and nature.
Origins and Context of Seiðr
Seiðr dates back to ancient times, long before the Christianization of Scandinavia. It is mentioned in Icelandic sagas and Eddic poems, which describe mythical and historical figures using this form of magic. Seiðr was seen as a practice that was both feared and respected, capable of influencing the destiny of individuals and communities. It is closely linked to the goddess Freyja, one of the most revered deities in the Norse pantheon, who is often associated with magic, fertility, and love.
The Völva: Priestesses and Prophetesses of Seiðr
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Role of the Völva : The völva were women respected for their spiritual and magical powers. They were often itinerant, traveling from community to community offering their services of divination, healing, and counseling. As practitioners of seiðr , they possessed a deep knowledge of ritual chants, incantations, and trance techniques that allowed them to communicate with spirits and perceive the invisible forces that influenced the world.
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Clothing and Symbols : The völva were often recognizable by their distinctive clothing, which included robes decorated with magical symbols and ritual accessories such as sorcery staves (called seiðstafr ), beaded necklaces, and amulets. These objects were not only symbols of their status, but also tools used to channel spiritual energies during their rituals.
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Transmission of Knowledge : The tradition of seiðr was largely passed down orally from generation to generation. The völva often trained female apprentices to perpetuate this knowledge. The sagas mention wise old women who, at the end of their lives, shared their esoteric knowledge with the next generation.
Practices and Rituals of Seiðr
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Songs and Incantations : Seiðr relied heavily on the use of ritual songs, known as galdr . These songs were intended to summon spirits, protect against curses, or induce trance states in the völva . Galdr could also be used to send messages or curses over long distances.
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Trance and Spirit Communication : One of the most important features of seiðr was the völva 's ability to enter a trance. This altered state of consciousness allowed the völva to spiritually travel to other worlds, meet spirits, and receive visions or prophetic messages. While in trance, the völva was often surrounded by attendants who sang to support her spiritual journey and protect her from spiritual dangers.
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Divination and Foretelling : The völva were particularly sought after for their divination abilities. They used seiðr to predict the future, whether for individuals, families, or even kings. Icelandic sagas tell stories of völva being consulted before battles or to resolve crises, and their prophecies were considered important and inevitable revelations.
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Influence of Natural Forces : As shamans, the völva also had the ability to influence natural forces, such as the weather, crops, and climatic events. Seiðr could be used to call for rain, calm a storm, or ensure the fertility of the land. This deep connection with nature made the völva essential figures in Scandinavian agricultural societies.
Ambivalence and Reputation of Seiðr
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Ambivalent Practice : Although seiðr was a respected practice, it was also surrounded by a certain ambivalence. Because of its association with the manipulation of natural and spiritual forces, it could be perceived as dangerous or potentially malevolent. Some sagas describe seiðr as magic that could also be used for nefarious purposes, such as casting curses or causing disasters.
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Gender and Practice : Seiðr was primarily associated with women, but some men, such as the god Odin, are also depicted as practicing this magic. However, men who engaged in seiðr were often stigmatized, as the practice was seen as effeminate and contrary to the norms of manhood in Scandinavian society.
Seiðr and Christianization
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Decline under Christianity : With the arrival of Christianity in Scandinavia, seiðr and other pagan practices became increasingly marginalized. The Church considered these practices to be witchcraft and paganism, and they were actively suppressed. However, some traditions related to seiðr survived in attenuated form, often integrated into local folklore or folk healing practices.
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Modern Revival : Today, seiðr is experiencing a revival as part of neo-pagan movements and the reenactment of ancient Norse practices. Groups and individuals interested in Scandinavian spiritual traditions are exploring and recreating seiðr rituals, drawing on historical and mythological sources.
Although this practice was suppressed with the advent of Christianity, it remains a fascinating aspect of Norse spiritual history, and its legacy lives on through mythological stories and modern spiritual movements that seek to reconnect with these ancient traditions.
Crimes of the Church against Shamans and Healers
Eradication of European Shamanism: Cultural Genocide and Massacres Perpetrated by the Christian Invasion in Europe
The eradication of shamanism and ancient European spiritual practices by the Christian invasion is a dark chapter in European religious history. The process of eliminating these traditions was long and brutal, marked by the systematic persecution of those practicing or associated with pagan beliefs, as well as the demonization of these practices by the Christian Church.
Christianization of Europe
Beginning in the 4th century, after Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire under Constantine, a gradual campaign of Christianization was undertaken to convert the pagan populations of Europe. This process accelerated in the Middle Ages, particularly with the conversion of the Germanic, Celtic, Slavic, and Scandinavian peoples. Older religions and spiritual practices, including forms of European shamanism, were seen as obstacles to the establishment of Christian authority.
Perception of Shamanic Practices
Shamanic practices in Europe, such as those of Celtic druids, Scandinavian völva , and local midwives or healers, were deeply embedded in the spiritual and social life of communities. These practices included herbal healing, divination, communication with nature spirits and ancestors, and rituals in harmony with natural cycles.
With the advent of Christianity, these practices were quickly labeled "pagan" and associated with idolatry, witchcraft, and even devil worship. The Christian Church saw these traditions as a direct threat to its spiritual and political dominance.
Inquisition and Persecution
One of the main institutions responsible for the eradication of shamanic practices in Europe was the Inquisition, a series of ecclesiastical tribunals set up to eradicate heresy. Although the Inquisition was initially directed against Christian heresies, it quickly expanded its scope to include witch hunts and the persecution of pagan practices.
Healers, midwives, and other practitioners of ancient traditions were often accused of witchcraft. These accusations were frequently based on local superstitions, personal rivalries, or forced confessions obtained under torture.
Witch Hunts and Bonfires
One of the most violent periods of persecution of shamanic and pagan practices occurred between the 15th and 18th centuries, during the witch hunts in Europe. Thousands of people, mostly women, were accused of witchcraft, tried by ecclesiastical or secular courts, and executed by hanging or being burned alive at the stake.
These "witches" were often female healers or midwives who continued to practice ancient rituals, use medicinal herbs, or offer spiritual guidance outside the framework of the Christian church. Their knowledge and practices, which had once been respected within their communities, were now considered demonic acts.
Cremation at the stake, in particular, symbolized not only the physical destruction of the individual, but also the annihilation of all traces of the spiritual culture to which he belonged.

Demonization of Shamanism
The Christian Church systematically demonized shamanic practices and other pagan beliefs. This demonization was manifested by the assimilation of the gods and spirits of the ancient religions to the Christian devil or his demons. For example, pagan nature deities, once revered as benevolent, were reinterpreted as demons or servants of Satan.
Healing practices, fertility rituals, and ceremonies honoring nature spirits were portrayed as acts of witchcraft, inspired by the devil. Theological writings and sermons of the time reinforced this perception, portraying shamans and healers as heretics or sorcerers who colluded with evil to gain their powers.
Consequences of Eradication
Loss of Ancestral Knowledge
The eradication of shamanic practices and ancient spiritual traditions has led to the loss of much ancestral knowledge, particularly in the areas of medicine, healing, and spirituality. Knowledge of medicinal herbs, protective rituals, and natural cycles, once passed down orally from generation to generation, has been largely erased or reduced to superstition.
Crushing of Local Cultures
The imposition of Christianity and the persecution of pagan practices also led to the crushing of local cultures. The festivities, myths, and traditions that punctuated the life of European communities were replaced by Christian rituals and festivals. Pagan sacred places, such as forests, springs, and mountains, were often destroyed or Christianized, with the erection of churches or crosses in their place.
Resurgence and Reappropriation
Despite the Church's efforts to eradicate these practices, some traditions have survived, often hiding under Christianized forms or being transmitted clandestinely. Today, there is a growing interest in the rediscovery and reappropriation of ancient shamanic and pagan traditions, within the framework of neo-pagan movements or the reevaluation of traditional knowledge.

E) Oceania
The Guardians of Dreams and Ancestral Spirits
Shamanism in Oceania, particularly in Australia and the Pacific Islands, is deeply connected to the land and ancestral spirits. These spiritual practices are rooted in ancient myths and complex rituals.
Specific Practices:
- Australian Aboriginal Dreamtime : The concept of Dreamtime is central to Australian Aboriginal people. It represents a mythical time when ancestors created the world. Aboriginal shamans, or karadjis , contact these ancestors to heal, protect, and maintain balance between humans and nature.
- Polynesian Shamanism : In the Pacific Islands, Polynesian shamans use rituals, dances, and songs to communicate with nature spirits and ancestors. They play a key role in healing ceremonies, rites of passage, and divination.
Local Beliefs:
- Spirits of the Land and Sea : In Oceania, the land and sea are sacred, and the spirits that inhabit them are revered. Shamans work to maintain harmony between these spirits and humans.
- Ancestor Worship : Ancestors are seen as protectors and guides, and shamanic rituals often center on maintaining this sacred connection.

In conclusion of this chapter
Shamanism, in all its varied forms around the world, reflects a deep connection between humanity and nature, as well as a respect for the spiritual forces that influence daily life. By exploring these local practices and beliefs, we discover a rich spiritual heritage that continues to influence contemporary traditions and meet the spiritual needs of communities throughout the ages.
III) Revival of Shamanism in Modern Societies
The revival of shamanism in modern societies is a phenomenon reflecting a growing desire to reconnect with ancient spiritual traditions and rediscover a deeper connection with nature. This resurgence of shamanism takes many forms, ranging from neo-shamanic movements in Western societies to cultural reappropriation by indigenous peoples seeking to revitalize and preserve their ancestral practices.
Neo-Shamanic Movements in the West
In recent decades, shamanism has attracted the attention of many people in the West, often in search of meaning, healing, and a more authentic spiritual connection. These neo-shamanic movements draw on traditional shamanic practices from various cultures around the world, but adapt them to the modern context.
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Neo-Shamanic Practices : Neo-shamans practice healing techniques, shamanic journeying, and working with spirits, often using drums, chants, and sacred plants such as ayahuasca. These practices are frequently taught in workshops, spiritual retreats, and trainings dedicated to shamanism.
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Eclectic Spirituality : Neo-shamanism is often syncretic, incorporating elements from various spiritual traditions, including Buddhism , Taoism , and New Age philosophies. This eclectic approach allows practitioners to personalize their spiritual path, although it sometimes raises questions about authenticity and cultural appropriation.
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Interest in Holistic Healing : Neo-shamanism places a strong emphasis on holistic healing, that is, the integration of body, mind, and soul. Practitioners seek to treat not only physical symptoms, but also spiritual and emotional imbalances. This approach attracts many people who are disillusioned with conventional medicine.
Cultural Reappropriation by Indigenous Peoples
Parallel to the revival of shamanism in the West, indigenous peoples around the world are undertaking significant efforts to reclaim and revitalize their shamanic traditions, often after centuries of colonization, Christianization, and cultural repression.
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Revitalization of Traditional Practices : Many indigenous peoples, such as Native Americans, Australian Aborigines, Siberians, and Mongolians, are actively working to preserve and revitalize their shamanic practices. This includes passing on ancestral knowledge to younger generations, conducting traditional ceremonies and rituals, and educating communities about the importance of these practices to cultural identity.
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Cultural Reappropriation : Cultural reappropriation is a process by which Indigenous peoples regain control of their spiritual and cultural traditions, often in response to centuries of marginalization. This involves not only the practice of shamanic rituals, but also the reclamation of sacred lands, the revival of Indigenous languages, and the restoration of traditional knowledge systems.
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Resistance and Spiritual Sovereignty : For many Indigenous communities, the reappropriation of shamanism is also an act of resistance and reaffirmation of their spiritual sovereignty in the face of the lingering effects of colonialism. Indigenous peoples are asserting their right to practice their spiritual beliefs and live according to their traditions, despite external pressures.
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Recognition and Respect : There is increasing recognition of the importance of traditional shamanic knowledge in maintaining biodiversity, sustainable management of natural resources, and promoting mental and spiritual health. This recognition is reflected in collaborative initiatives between indigenous communities and international organizations, aimed at preserving these traditions for future generations.

Challenges and Opportunities
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Cultural Appropriation vs. Reappropriation : While the revival of shamanism is viewed positively by many, it also raises questions about cultural appropriation, particularly when elements of shamanism are commercialized or diverted from their original cultural context. For indigenous peoples, it is crucial that these practices are respected and that their reappropriation is led by the communities themselves.
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Intergenerational Transmission : The transmission of shamanic knowledge to younger generations is a major challenge for indigenous communities, particularly in the face of the growing influence of globalization and Western culture. Many initiatives focus on educating young people about their traditions, integrating shamanic practices into educational programs and community activities.
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Legal Recognition and Rights : Legal recognition of shamanic practices and the rights of indigenous peoples to preserve their traditions is a critical issue. In some areas, efforts are being made to legally recognize shamanic practices and protect sacred lands, although this remains an ongoing struggle in many places.
The revival of shamanism in modern societies speaks to a growing need to reconnect with ancient spiritual traditions and rediscover practices that honor nature and community. For Indigenous peoples, the reappropriation of shamanism is an act of cultural and spiritual resilience, essential to the survival of their ancestral identity and values. As shamanism continues to thrive in a changing modern world, it offers a bridge between the past and the future, uniting ancient wisdoms with contemporary needs for healing and spirituality.
IV) Conclusion and Reflections
Shamanism, as an ancient spiritual practice, has demonstrated remarkable resilience and adaptability throughout history. Despite successive waves of Christianization, colonization, and modernization, shamanism has survived, evolved, and even thrived in diverse and sometimes hostile contexts. This ability to endure is a testament to the depth and relevance of shamanic principles, which are fundamentally tied to nature, community, and spiritual healing.
Resilience and Adaptability of Shamanism
The history of shamanism is marked by an impressive continuity, where practices that are several thousand years old continue to be transmitted from generation to generation, sometimes in modified forms but always imbued with their original essence. This resilience can be explained by several factors:
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Deep Connection with Nature : Shamanism is intrinsically connected to nature, making it particularly relevant to societies that live in harmony with their environment. This symbiotic relationship with nature has allowed shamanism to remain relevant even in contexts where other forms of spirituality have been marginalized.
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Capacity for Integration and Syncretism : Shamanism has often been able to integrate elements of new religions or ideologies without losing its essence. For example, in many cultures, shamanic practices have been integrated into the framework of Buddhism , Taoism , or even Christianity, thus allowing their survival in new forms.
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Reappropriation and Revitalization : Cultural reappropriation efforts by Indigenous peoples show that shamanism is not just a relic of the past, but a living and vibrant tradition. These revitalization movements are examples of cultural resilience, where communities work to restore their spiritual practices as a way to strengthen their identity and sovereignty.
Invitation to Spiritual Exploration
In the modern world, where many feel a need for deeper connection with themselves, nature, and others, shamanism offers a rich and diverse spiritual path. The principles of shamanism—the interconnectedness of all things, respect for nature, holistic healing, and communication with the spirit world—are values that still resonate today.
I invite you to explore your own understanding of spiritual practices, whether through the study of shamanic traditions or by reconnecting with nature and your own spirituality. Shamanism reminds us that spirituality is not just about belief, but also about practice, experience, and relationship with the world around us.
In a world of constant change, shamanism continues to offer tools and perspectives to navigate the challenges of modern life while honoring ancient wisdoms. Shamanism offers a space for rich spiritual exploration, where each individual can find their own path to harmony, healing, and understanding the mystery of life.
By engaging in this exploration, you are not only participating in the preservation of these ancient traditions, but also in their adaptation and renewal for future generations.

V) Resources for Further Study
For those interested in further exploring shamanism and its syncretisms around the world, here is a selection of resources including books, documentaries, and podcasts that offer enriching and in-depth perspectives on the subject.
Books
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“ The Way of the Shaman ” by Michael Harner
- A classic in the field of shamanic studies, this book provides an introduction to universal shamanic practices and details the author's experiences with shamans in the Amazon. It is widely considered a foundational text for those interested in modern shamanism.
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“ Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy ” by Mircea Eliade
- This book is an in-depth study of shamanism throughout the world. Eliade explores the different forms of shamanism, their symbols, and rituals, and analyzes how these practices are rooted in techniques of trance and ecstasy.
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“ The Cosmic Serpent: DNA and the Origins of Knowledge ” by Jeremy Narby
- Narby examines the connection between the shamanic visions of the indigenous peoples of the Amazon and modern science, particularly in relation to DNA. This is a fascinating book that offers a unique perspective on how ancient and modern knowledge can meet.
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“ Shamanic Worlds: Rituals and Lore of Siberia and Central Asia ” by Marjorie Mandelstam Balzer
- This book explores shamanism in Siberia and Central Asia, with particular emphasis on the continuity of shamanic traditions and their interaction with organized religions.
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" The Tibetan Book of the Dead " (Bardo Thödol) translated by Robert AF Thurman
- An accessible, annotated translation of this sacred Tibetan Buddhist text, which explores the intermediate states between death and rebirth, with deep roots in the shamanic traditions of Tibet.
Documentaries
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" The Last Shaman " (2016)
- This documentary tells the story of a young man on a quest for spiritual healing who travels to the Amazon to explore shamanic practices, particularly ayahuasca. It is an intimate look at the quest for meaning and healing in the context of modern shamanism.
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“ Shamans of the Amazon ” (2001)
- This documentary explores the shamanic practices of the indigenous peoples of the Amazon, highlighting the importance of sacred plants like ayahuasca and the role of shamans in indigenous culture.
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“ In the Light of Reverence ” (2001)
- This film examines conflicts between North American indigenous peoples and authorities over the preservation of sacred sites and spiritual traditions, including shamanic practices. It offers perspective on the challenges of cultural reappropriation.
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"Dancing with the Incas: The Shamanic Paths of Peru" (2012)
- A documentary that explores shamanic practices in South America, particularly in Peru, where Inca shamanic traditions continue to influence modern spiritual practices.
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“Journey of the Spirit” (2006)
- This documentary focuses on shamanic practices in different cultures around the world, showing the diversity and universality of shamanic traditions.
Podcasts
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" The Shaman's Cave " with Sandra Ingerman and Renee Baribeau
- A podcast dedicated to modern shamanism, where the hosts discuss various aspects of shamanic practices, offer practical advice, and explore how to integrate shamanic teachings into daily life.
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“ The Medicine Path ” with Brian James
- This podcast explores spirituality, shamanism, and healing through interviews with practitioners, authors, and researchers. It offers an integrative approach to shamanic traditions and ancestral wisdom.
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“ The Sacred Earth ” by Nick Polizzi
- This podcast focuses on indigenous spiritual traditions, particularly shamanic practices, and explores how they can offer solutions to modern challenges. It features interviews with shamans and healers from around the world.
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“ Speaking of Jung: Interviews with Jungian Analysts ”
- Although this podcast focuses on Jungian psychology, several episodes explore the connections between shamanic practices and depth psychology, offering a psychological perspective on shamanism.
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“ The Plant Medicine Podcast ”
- This podcast focuses on the use of medicinal plants in the context of shamanic practices, particularly in the Amazon. It covers topics such as ayahuasca, peyote, and other sacred plants, as well as their role in spiritual healing. .